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Word Problems. All 'Science'. Basic Principles. Earth Sciences. General Science. Other Science. Physical Science. Social Studies - History. All 'Social Studies - History'. African History. One solution is to produce a separate alphabet with symbols that represent sounds. Such a set of symbols does exist and is called the phonetic alphabet.
In this chapter, we will look at how these symbols are used to represent both the consonant and vowel sounds of English words and what physical aspects of the human vocal tract are involved in the produc- tion of those sounds.
Phonetics The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. Our main interest will be in articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.
Other areas of study are acoustic phonetics, which deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air, and auditory phonetics or perceptual phonetics which deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds. Voiced and voiceless sounds In articulatory phonetics, we investigate how speech sounds are produced using the fairly complex oral equipment we have. We start with the air pushed out by the lungs up through the trachea or windpipe to the larynx.
Inside the larynx are your vocal folds or vocal cords , which take two basic positions. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced.
Because these are voiced sounds, you should be able to feel some vibration. Because these are voiceless sounds, there should be no vibration. Z-Z-Z-Z to hear and feel some vibration, whereas no vibration will be heard or felt if you make voiceless sounds e.
S-S-S-S in the same way. Most consonant sounds are produced by using the tongue and other parts of the mouth to constrict, in some way, the shape of the oral cavity through which the air is passing. The terms used to describe many sounds are those which denote the place of articulation of the sound: that is, the location inside the mouth at which the constriction takes place. What we need is a slice of head.
If you crack a head right down the middle, you will be able to see which parts of the oral cavity are crucially involved in speech production. To describe the place of articulation of most consonant sounds, we can start at the front of the mouth and work back. We can also keep the voiced—voiceless distinction in mind and begin using the symbols of the phonetic alphabet for specific sounds.
These symbols will be enclosed within square brackets [ ]. The initial sounds in the words pat, bat and mat are all bilabials. They are represented by the symbols [p], which is voiceless, and [b] and [m], which are voiced. We can also describe the [w] sound found at the beginning of way, walk and world as a bilabial. Labiodentals These are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip.
The initial sounds of the words fat and vat and the final sounds in the words safe and save are labiodentals. They are represented by the symbols [f], which is voiceless, and [v], which is voiced. Notice that the final sound in the word cough, and the initial sound in photo, despite the spelling differences, are both pronounced as [f]. Dentals These sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. The initial sound of thin and the final sound of bath are both voiceless dentals.
It is also the middle consonant sound in feather and the final sound of bathe. Alveolars These are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind and above the upper teeth. The initial sounds in top, dip, sit, zoo and nut are all alveolars. The symbols for these sounds are easy to remember — [t], [d], [s], [z], [n].
Of these, [t] and [s] are voiceless whereas [d], [z] and [n] are voiced. It may be clear that the final sounds of the words bus and buzz have to be [s] and [z] respectively, but what about the final sound of the word raise? Notice also that despite the different spelling of knot and not, both of these words are pronounced with [n] as the initial sound.
Other alveolars are the [l] sound found at the beginning of words such as lap and lit, and the [r] sound at the beginning of right and write. Palatals If you feel back behind the alveolar ridge, you should find a hard part in the roof of your mouth. This is called the hard palate or just the palate. Sounds produced with the tongue and the palate are called palatals or alveo-palatals.
Examples of palatals are the initial sounds in the words shout and child, which are both voiceless. One other voiced palatal is the [j] sound used at the beginning of words like you and yet. Velars Even further back in the roof of the mouth, beyond the hard palate, you will find a soft area, which is called the soft palate, or the velum.
Sounds produced with the back of the tongue against the velum are called velars. There is a voiceless velar sound, represented by the symbol [k], which occurs not only in kid and kill, but is also the initial sound in car and cold. Despite the variety in spelling, this [k] sound is both the initial and final sound in the words cook, kick and coke. This is also the final sound in words like bag, mug and, despite the spelling, plague. It occurs twice in the form ringing. It is the sound [h] which occurs at the beginning of have and house and, for most speakers, as the first sound in who and whose.
This sound is usually described as a voiceless glottal. When the glottis is open, as in the production of other voiceless sounds, and there is no manipu- lation of the air passing out of the mouth, the sound produced is that represented by [h]. Charting consonant sounds Having described in some detail the place of articulation of English consonant sounds, we can summarize the basic information in the accompanying chart.
Also included in this chart, on the left-hand side, is a set of terms used to describe manner of articulation which we will discuss in the following section.
It contains the majority of consonant sounds used in the basic description of English pronunciation. There are, however, several differences between this basic set of symbols and the much more comprehensive chart produced by the International Phonetic Association IPA. The most obvious difference is in the range of sounds covered. We would go to an IPA chart for a description of the sounds of all languages.
Uvular sounds also occur in many native languages of North and South America. Other non- English sounds such as pharyngeals produced in the pharynx occur in languages such as Arabic. There are many other consonant sounds in the languages of the world.
There can be a lot of variation among speakers in the pronunciation of the initial sound in raw and red, the medial sound in very, and the final sound in hour and air. Different symbols e. Finally, in some phonetic descriptions, there are different symbols for a few of the sounds represented here. For a fuller discussion of the use of these symbols, see Ladefoged Manner of articulation So far, we have concentrated on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated.
We can also describe the same sounds in terms of how they are articulated. Such a description is necessary if we want to be able to differentiate between some sounds which, in the preceding discussion, we have placed in the same category. For example, we can say that [t] and [s] are both voiceless alveolar sounds. How do they differ? They differ in their manner of articulation, that is, in the way they are pronounced. The [t] sound is one of a set of sounds called stops and the [s] sound is one of a set called fricatives.
A full description of the [t] sound at the beginning of a word like ten is as a voiceless alveolar stop. In some discussions, only the manner of articulation is mentioned, as when it is said that the word bed, for example, begins and ends with voiced stops. As the air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives. If you put your open hand in front of your mouth when making these sounds, [f] and [s] in particular, you should be able to feel the stream of air being pushed out.
The sound [h], as in Hi or Hello, is voiceless and also usually included in the set of fricatives. These are called affricates and occur at the beginning of the words cheap and jeep.
Nasals Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing airflow from entering the nasal cavity. These three sounds are all voiced. The words morning, knitting and name begin and end with nasals. Liquids The initial sounds in led and red are described as liquids. They are both voiced. The [l] sound is called a lateral liquid and is formed by letting the air stream flow around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge.
The [r] sound at the beginning of red is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge. Glides The sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They are both voiced and occur at the beginning of we, wet, you and yes. Try saying the expression Oh oh!. Between the first Oh and the second oh, we typically produce a glottal stop.
This sound is considered to be characteristic of Cockney London speech. This sound is produced by the tongue tip tapping the alveolar ridge briefly. Nor do writer and rider, metal and medal. They all have flaps. The student who was told about the importance of Plato in class and wrote it in his notes as play- dough was clearly a victim of a misinterpreted flap. This rather lengthy list of the phonetic features of English consonant sounds is not presented as a challenge to your ability to memorize a lot of terminology and symbols.
It is presented as an illustration of how a thorough description of the physical aspects of speech production will allow us to characterize the sounds of spoken English, inde- pendently of the vagaries of spelling found in written English. There are, however, some sounds that we have not yet investigated. These are the types of sounds known as vowels and diphthongs. Vowels While the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via closure or obstruction in the vocal tract, vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flow of air.
They are all typically voiced. To describe vowel sounds, we consider the way in which the tongue influences the shape through which the airflow must pass. For the first two, your mouth will stay fairly closed, but for the last two, your tongue will move lower and cause your mouth to open wider. The sounds of relaxation and pleasure typically contain lower vowels. The terminology for describing vowel sounds in English e.
Following the chart is a list of the major vowels with examples of familiar words illustrating some of the variation in spelling that is possible for each sound. The movement in this diphthong is from low towards high front. While the vowels [e], [a] and [o] are used as single sounds in other languages, and in some other varieties of English, they are only typically used as the first sounds of diphthongs in American English.
The accompanying diagram provides a rough idea of how diphthongs are produced and is followed by a list of the sounds, with examples to illustrate some of the variation in the spelling of these sounds. Also, some of the sound distinc- tions shown here may not even be used regularly in your own speech.
In fact, in casual speech, we all use schwa more than any other single sound. There are many other variations in the actual physical articulation of the sounds we have considered here. The more we focus on the subtle differences in the actual articulation of each sound, the more likely we are to find ourselves describing the pronunciation of small groups or even individual speakers.
Such subtle differences enable us to identify individual voices and recognize people we know as soon as they speak. We are clearly able to disregard all the subtle individual variation in the phonetic detail of voices and recognize each underlying sound type as part of a word with a particular meaning. To make sense of how we do that, we need to look at the more general sound patterns, or the phonology, of a language.
The sounds of language 37 Study questions 1 What is the difference between acoustic phonetics and articulatory phonetics? Keeping this in mind, try to provide a basic phonetic representation of the following words.
Some words will be in more than one list. So we say that [k] is a voiceless velar fricative. Write similar definitions for the initial sounds in the normal pronunciation of the following words.
Among the types of consonants already described affricates, fricatives, glides, liquids, nasals, stops , which are obstruents, which are sonorants, and why? E i How would you make a retroflex sound? F What is forensic phonetics? In front of a mirror or enlist a cooperative friend to be the speaker , say the following pairs of words. What clues are you using to help you make your decision?
II English has a number of expressions such as chit-chat and flip-flop which never seem to occur in the reverse order i. Perhaps you can add examples to the following list of similar expressions. Further reading Basic treatments Ladefoged, P.
Roach, J. Hartman and J. Live inne contri nire foresta. No mugheggia. Uanna dei pappa, mamma, e beibi go bice, orie e furghetta locche di dorra. Bai ene bai commese Goldilocchese. Sci garra natingha tu du batte meiche troble.
Sci puscia olle fudde daon di maute; no live cromma. Den sci gos appesterrese enne slipse in olle beddse. Bob Belviso, quoted in Espy In the preceding chapter, we investigated the physical production of speech sounds in terms of the articulatory mechanisms of the human vocal tract. That investigation was possible because of some rather amazing facts about the nature of language.
Yet those two physically different individuals would inevitably have physically different vocal tracts, in terms of size and shape. In a sense, every individual has a physically different vocal tract.
Consequently, in purely physical terms, every individual will pronounce sounds differently. There are, then, potentially millions of physically different ways of saying the simple word me. Obvious differences occur when that individual is shouting, is suffering from a bad cold or is asking for a sixth martini. Given this vast range of potential differences in the actual physical production of a speech sound, how do we manage consistently to recognize all those versions of me as the form [mi], and not [ni] or [si] or [ma] or [mo] or something else entirely?
The answer to that question is provided to a large extent by the study of phonology. Phonology Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is, in effect, based on a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language. Because of this theoretical status, phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.
See the end of the chapter for a translation. Phonology is about the underlying design, the blueprint of each sound type, which serves as the constant basis of all the variations in different physical articulations of that sound type in different contexts. In actual speech, these [t] sounds are all very different. However, all these articulation differences in [t] sounds are less important to us than the distinction between the [t] sounds in general and the [k] sounds, or the [f] sounds, or the [b] sounds, because there are meaningful consequences related to the use of one rather than the others.
These sounds must be distinct meaningful sounds, regardless of which individual vocal tract is being used to pronounce them, because they are what make the words tar, car, far and bar meaningfully distinct.
Considered from this point of view, we can see that phonology is concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a language that allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we say and hear. Phonemes Each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a phoneme. When we learn to use alphabetic writing, we are actually using the concept of the phoneme as the single stable sound type which is represented by a single written symbol.
An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. This contrastive property is the basic operational test for determining the phonemes that exist in a language.
If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. The basic phonemes of English are listed with the consonant, vowel and diphthong diagrams in Chapter 3. Because these two sounds share some features i. The prediction would be that sounds which have features in common would behave phonologically in some similar ways.
A sound which does not share those features would be expected to behave differently. If so, then we will be on our way to producing a phonological account of permissible sound sequences in the language.
We can describe those different versions as phones. Phones are phonetic units and appear in square brackets. For example, the [t] sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger puff of air than is present in the [t] sound in the word star. If you put the back of your hand in front of your mouth as you say tar, then star, you should be able to feel some physical evidence of aspiration the puff of air accompanying the [t] sound at the beginning of tar but not in star.
In the last chapter, we noted that the [t] sound between vowels in a word like writer often becomes a flap, which we can represent as [D]. The crucial distinction between phonemes and allophones is that substituting one phoneme for another will result in a word with a different meaning as well as a different pronunciation , but substituting allophones only results in a different and perhaps unusual pronunciation of the same word.
In the second word, the effect of the nasal consonant [n] makes the [i] sound nasalized. It is possible, of course, for two languages to have the same pair of phonetic seg- ments, but to treat them differently.
In English, the effect of nasalization on a vowel is treated as allophonic variation because the nasalized version is not meaningfully contrastive. Clearly, in these cases, the distinction is phonemic. Minimal pairs and sets Phonemic distinctions in a language can be tested via pairs and sets of words.
When two words such as pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair. More accurately, they would be classified as a minimal pair in the phonology of English. Other examples of English minimal pairs are fan—van, bet—bat, site—side.
Such pairs have traditionally been used in the teaching and testing of English as a second or foreign language to help students develop the ability to understand the contrast in meaning based on the minimal sound contrast. When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme always in the same position in the word , then we have a minimal set.
The sound patterns of language 45 For example, one minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of English could include feat, fit, fat, fate, fought, foot, and another minimal set based on consonant phonemes could have big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig. Phonotactics This type of exercise involving minimal sets also allows us to see that there are definite patterns in the types of sound combinations permitted in a language. In English, the minimal set we have just listed does not include forms such as lig or vig.
According to the dictionary, these are not English words, but they could be viewed as possible English words. That is, our phonological knowledge of the pattern of sounds in English words would allow us to treat these forms as acceptable if, at some future time, they came into use.
They might, for example, begin as invented abbreviations I think Bubba is one very ignorant guy. They have been formed without obeying some constraints on the sequence or position of English phonemes. Such constraints are called the phono- tactics i. Because these constraints operate on a unit that is larger than the single segment or phoneme, we have to move on to a consideration of the basic structure of that larger phonological unit called the syllable.
Syllables A syllable must contain a vowel or vowel-like sound, including diphthongs. The most common type of syllable in language also has a consonant C before the vowel V and is typically represented as CV. Technically, the basic elements of the syllable are the onset one or more consonants followed by the rhyme. The rhyme sometimes syllable onset rhyme nucleus coda consonant s vowel consonant s Figure 4. Syllables like me, to or no have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda.
They are known as open syllables. When a coda is present, as in the syllables up, cup, at or hat, they are called closed syllables. Consonant clusters Both the onset and the coda can consist of more than one consonant, also known as a consonant cluster.
There are many CC onset combinations permitted in English phonotactics, as in black, bread, trick, twin, flat and throw. English can actually have larger onset clusters, as in the words stress and splat, consisting of three initial consonants CCC.
The phonotactics of these larger onset consonant clusters is not too difficult to describe. You can check if this description is adequate for the combinations in splash, spring, strong, scream and square.
Does the description also cover the second syllable in the pronunciation of exclaim? Remember that it is the onset of the syllable that is being described, not the beginning of the word. It is quite unusual for languages to have consonant clusters of this type. Indeed, the syllable structure of many languages e.
Japanese is predominantly CV. It is also noticeable in English that large consonant clusters may be reduced in casual conversa- tional speech, particularly if they occur in the middle of a word. This is just one example of a process that is usually discussed in terms of coarticulation effects. Coarticulation effects In much of the preceding discussion, we have been describing speech sounds in syllables and words as if they are always pronounced carefully and deliberately, almost in slow motion.
Mostly our talk is fast and spontaneous, and it requires our articulators to move from one sound to the next without stopping. The process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next sound is called coarticulation. There are two well-known coarticulation effects, described as assimilation and elision. Vowels are also subject to assimilation.
In many words spoken carefully, the vowel receives stress, but in the course of ordinary everyday talk, that vowel may no longer receive any stress and naturally reduce to schwa. Elision In the last example, illustrating the normal pronunciation of you and me, the [d] sound of the word and was not included in the transcription.
This process of not pro- nouncing a sound segment that might be present in the deliberately careful pronunci- ation of a word in isolation is described as elision. In fact, consistently avoiding the regular patterns of assimilation and elision used in a lan- guage would result in extremely artificial-sounding talk.
The point of investigating these phonological processes is not to arrive at a set of rules about how a language should be pronounced, but to try to come to an understanding of the regularities and patterns which underlie the actual use of sounds in language. The sound patterns of language 49 Study questions 1 What is the difference between a phoneme and an allophone? B In the phonology of Hawaiian there are only open syllables. Also, based on this slender evidence, which two English consonants are probably not phonemes in Hawaiian?
C The word central has a consonant cluster -ntr- in the middle and two syllables. D Individual sounds are described as segments. Introduction: Why Project Management?
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Connect with us to learn more. Jeffrey K. Pinto held previous academic appointments at the University of Cincinnati and the University of Maine. The author or editor of 28 books and over scientific papers that have appeared in a variety of academic and practitioner journals, books, conference proceedings, video lessons, and technical reports, Dr. Pinto is a two-time recipient of the Distinguished Contribution Award from the Project Management Institute for outstanding service to the project management profession.
In , he received the Research Achievement Award from the International Project Management Association in recognition of his career research contributions to the field of project management. Pinto has taught and consulted widely in North America, South America, and Europe on a variety of topics, including project management, new product development, supply chain management, information systems implementation, organization development, leadership, and conflict resolution.
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